Angela’s Ashes: a Memoir

Lankford 1 Michelle Lankford Angela’s Ashes: A Memoir 10/06/2012 Antagonists in Angela’s Ashes Philomena Flynn was Angela’s cousin. Philomena was one of the people who pressured Malachy McCourt Sr. to marry Angela Sheehan after their mishap when Angela first came to the United States resulting in a pregnancy out of wedlock. Instead of Philomena helping her cousin she tracked down Malachy to make the pregnancy Malachy’s problem. Philomena tracked down Malachy McCourt at a bar. Philomena stated to Frank McCourt,† Our cousin no sooner gets off the boat than you are at her.We have morals in Limerick, you know, morals. We’re not like jackrabbits from Antrim, a place crawling with Presbyterians,† (McCourt 16). Philomena also commented on how Malachy had an odd manner (McCourt 16). After the birth of Angela and Malachy’s first son, a party was given at Philomena’s house. Philomena made a statement to Angela, â€Å"I’d make sure there’s no more children. He don’t have a job, so he don’t, an’ never will the way he drinks. So†¦ no more children,† (McCourt 19). Philomena had her fill with her cousin after Angela gave birth to another child.Philomena and her family made it clear, â€Å"they wanted nothing to do with Angela until she came to her senses,† (McCourt 19). Years later Philomena intervenes in Angela’s life again. Philomena gets in contact with Angela’s mother, Margaret Sheehan, asking for money to send Angela and her family back to Ireland (McCourt 45). Philomena even goes as far as buying a steamer trunk and hiring a van to take the family to Lankford 2 the pier (McCourt 46). As Francis McCourt states,† It was good-bye and good riddance,† (McCourt 46).Angela McCourt, mother of the seven McCourt children, enabled her husband Malachy McCourt Sr. to be a drunk. No where throughout this memoir does she put her foot down, encour aging Malachy Sr. to quit drinking. Throughout the memoir, Angela rants and raves about Malchy Sr. , not providing food and money for his family. Angela states many times though out the story,† They’re gone to bed half hungry because you have to fill your belly with whiskey,† (McCourt 25). Angela goes as far as taking her children down the streets of Brooklyn and Limerick, going from pub to pub seeking her husband.When the family returns to Ireland, Angela spends more time in bed due to illness and or own depression over the loss of 3 of her children instead of taking care of the ones who are alive. Angela takes to her oldest children down a road in search of coal to light a fire (McCourt 69) instead of demanding Malachy Sr. find gainful employment. Angela allows her eldest son, Francis McCourt to be the one who provides the care to his younger siblings. When Malachy McCourt Sr. , goes away to England to work, Angela shacks up with one of her cousins, Laman Griffi n, and has an extramarital affair while her children are in another room.The children hear them â€Å"talking, grunting and moaning,† (McCourt 291). Angela also has no problem allowing her eldest son to find gainful employment to help support the household while Malachy McCourt Sr. is in England sending no money. Angela receives welfare and charity most of the story instead of finding employment herself to support her family. Angela spent most of her time fixating on her losses rather than trying to figure out keeping her family together. Lankford 3 Malachy McCourt Sr. , from Toome, County Antrim (McCourt 12) was an Irish drunk. Malachy Sr. pent most of his years in a bar or pub spending whatever money he earned. Even after he married Angela and had seven children, he couldn’t resist the alcohol. The eldest child, Francis,† knew his father was always out looking for work, came home with smell of whiskey on his breath, and sang songs about Ireland suffering,†(McCourt 22). Angela always has hopes that Malachy Sr. could resist the pub and bring home his pay to support his family (McCourt 95). There comes a time in the story when the McCourt’s have their last child and Malachy’s Sr. ‘s father sends five pounds. Malachy Sr. cashes the money order and spends the money at the pub,† (McCourt 183). Even though Malachy Sr. is a chronic alcoholic his children and Angela love him. It is stated by Francis McCourt,† I think my father is like the Holy Trinity with three people in him, the one in the morning with the paper, the one at night with the stories and prayers, and then the one who does the bad thing and comes home with the smell of whiskey and wants us to die for Ireland,† (McCourt 210). Malachy Sr. , has a hard time finding working in Limerick, Ireland because he as a northern Irish accent.Northern Irish people aren’t accepted in Limerick due to their non-catholic religion and affiliation with t he English. Malachy Sr. eventually leaves his family and heads to England for work. Malachy Sr. seldom sends his pay, causing his family to have to beg from charities. It was said by Mr. Downes, â€Å"Malachy McCourt is gone pure mad with the drink, that he squanders his wages in pubs all over the Coventry,† (McCourt 230). Towards the end of the novel, Francis McCourt makes the statement,† He’s not coming, Mam. He doesn’t care about us. He’s just a drunk over there in England,† (McCourt 269). Malachy Sr. s many years of frequenting the pub have caused his family to starve, move to one room shacks, and to rely on others to help support his family. Lankford 4 The McCourt family belonged to low social class. They were poor. They lived in poverty. The McCourt family was rejected on many things because of their social class. Angela McCourt was nearly denied assistance from St. Vincent De Paul Society because they are â€Å"Yankees and thereâ€℠¢s barely enough charity for the poor people of Limerick,† (McCourt 63). Francis McCourt is denied being an altar boy, as Angela states,† I’ll tell you what it is, she says. Tis class distinction. They don’t want boys from the lanes on the altar,† (McCourt 149). The McCourt boys are constantly made fun of because of the rags they wear for clothes, shoes that have holes in them fixed with rubber tires by Malachy Sr. McCourt (McCourt 105) and even as far as having to eat a pig’s head for Christmas and carrying it through the lanes while other kids point and laugh and make jokes (McCourt 98). Poverty is the biggest antagonist in this memoir. The McCourt’s lived in one-room shacks that contained a fireplace, table, 3 chairs and 1 bed which had to accommodate six people. McCourt 59). Most of the McCourt’s meals consisted of tea and bread (McCourt 24) while Malachy McCourt spent his earnings in a pub. The McCourt’s were so poor t hat they filled the infant’s bottles with sugar and water (McCourt 36). While in the United States, many of the McCourt’s neighbors would bring extra food over to support the McCourt household (McCourt 41). In Ireland, Malachy McCourt Sr. goes to the Labour Exchange for the dole to provide some type of income for his family (McCourt 63). Angela McCourt proceeds to go to St. Vincent de Paul to get assistance.Angela is given a docket for a weeks worth of groceries (McCourt 66). The McCourts have to search down roads in order to find coal to have a fire and warmth (McCourt 69). In one of the dwellings the McCourt’s reside at, they must share a lavatory with the whole lane (McCourt 103). Angela McCourt is ashamed of how her family looks â€Å"with the Lankford 5 dirty old torn shirts, raggedy ganseys, broken shoes, and holes in their stockings,† (McCourt 231). Angela McCourt is forced also to be a beggar, as stated by Francis McCourt,† This is worse tha n the dole, The St.Vincent de Paul Society, and the Dispensary. It’s the worst kind of Shame,† (McCourt 250). Many times throughout the memoir Francis McCourt himself has stolen food such as stealing bananas from the Italians in Brooklyn (McCourt 32), stealing fish and chips from a drunken man (McCourt 184), acquiring lemonade from pubs for his mother (McCourt 236), and stealing food off people’s front doors (McCourt 238) to provide food for his family while his father is away in England not supporting his family. The poverty the McCourt’s faced caused illnesses and deaths in this family.It caused hospitalizations for Angela and Francis. This family was near starvation most of Francis McCourts childhood to teenage years. Francis McCourt is what held the family together. Francis McCourt’s life began in the United States and in the end of this memoir he ended up back in the U. S. Francis McCourt had many struggles while growing up. Francis had to deal with poverty, deaths of his younger siblings as well as friends, typhoid and conjunctivitis, his alcoholic father, religion and its hypocrisy.Francis learned that the only he was going to get anywhere was to be a hard worker and he waited year after year until he was finally able to work at 14 yrs old. The story told by Francis McCourt and his upbringing shows that if you work hard enough to achieve your dreams you will accomplish them regardless of what obstacles or mountains you have to climb. Look what Mr. Francis McCourt had to endure to make his dreams come true. He had a dream to return to the United States; A dream that he fulfilled at last. Lankford 6 Works Cited McCourt, Frank. Angela’s Ashes. 1st ed. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. Print

Industrial Injuries and Occupational Diseases

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES Essay Industrial injuries and occupational diseases Checked by: Utepov T. Y. Done by: Gilmanov N. E. Alamty 2012 Industrial injuries and occupational disease. An industrial injury covers of two different forms: Accidents at work   and Occupational diseases. An accident is a physical or mental injury following an incident or exposure. The incident or exposure has to be sudden or last no more than 5 days.An accident can be recognized as an industrial injury if the injury occurred due to your work or working conditions. In other words, there has to be causality between your work and the cause of the injury. If you accidentally get injured in the workplace, the injury is not necessarily caused by your work. Example: You get up from a chair and get a prolapsed disc. Occupational disease is a disease that is caused by the work or working condition. The disease may develop due to short- or long-tem exposures. For example your hearing reduced by working several years in noisy environment.In this essay I want to focus on industrial injury and generally occupational disease. Common causes of industrial injuries like poor ergonomics, manual handling of heavy loads, misuse or failure of equipment, exposure to general hazards, inadequate safety training and clothing. They causes may damage human organs like spine, lungs, eyes, skeleton and skin. There are many methods of preventing or reducing industrial injuries, including anticipation of problems by risk assessment, safety training, control banding, personal protective equipment safety guards, mechanisms on machinery, and safety barriers.In addition, past problems can be analyzed to find their root causes by using a technique called root cause analysis. According to definition, an occupational disease is a disease or disorder that is caused by the work or working conditions. This means that the disease mu st have developed due to exposures in the workplace and that the correlation between the exposures and the disease is well known in medical research. Or put in another way, it must not be likely, beyond reasonable doubt that the disease was caused by factors other than work. Examples of occupational diseases: Tennis elbow, Allergy, Hearing loss, Asthma, etc.Also, there are several methods to preventing occupational disease organization must organize safety training, control banding, and provide personal protective equipment safety guards and mechanisms safety barriers. In addition it will be useful if all problems will be analyzed and found cause to solve it. Summing up, occupational diseases are widely known industrial injuries. Workers in every occupation can be faced with hazards in the workplace. Preventing work diseases and accidents must be the goal of occupational health and safety programmers. In order to provide safety and health organizations must possibly limit harm from hazards.

The Burnout Athlete

Many athletes dedicate their lives to their sport; however, the human body cannot always handle the demands of sport. The general consensus among athletes is that you must work very hard in order to improve performance. For the most part, that assumption is true. Hard training places much stress on the body and makes a person weaker, and it is in the rest period where the gains are actually made. Overtraining is seen in athletes when sufficient rest is not included in their training program and their performance plateaus, and then eventually declines. This chronic debilitating syndrome is characterized most commonly by fatigue, the inability to exceed the former level of performance, and a decreased ability to recover. If an athlete continues to overtrain, it can ultimately lead to burnout, which is total mental, emotional and physical exhaustion, often resulting in early withdrawal from the sport environment. Burnout is characterized by loss of desire to play, lowered self-esteem, emotional isolation, increased anxiety and mood changes. In the following studies, psychologists have tried to determine what exactly causes repeatedly poor performances and the tendency for athletes to prematurely quit the sports they love. The study done in 1984 on the psychological burnout in high-level athletes, David Feigley notes the lowered quality of our national team programs due to high rates of dropout much before athletes reach their prime. He focused on elite adolescent athletes because their attrition rate is so high. Until this study was done, burnout was related mostly to job stress, but the findings were seen to be applicable to sporting situations. When bureaucratic management organizations were compared to sports programs, many similarities were discovered including hierarchical authority, rational authority, impersonal application of rules and the division of labour. In this study, Feigley refers to burnout as a condition produced by working too hard for too long in a high-pressured situation, accompanied by a progressive loss of idealism, energy and purpose that is often paralleled by a feeling of being locked into a routine. The individual displays a pattern of physical and emotional exhaustion involving the development of negative self-concepts and negative attitudes towards work, life and other people (Feigley, 1984). There were several characteristics that identified people as more susceptible to burnout including perfectionism, being other-oriented and lacking assertive interpersonal skills. His research found that burnout could be the result of demotivation occurring from the change and nature of feedback, the increasing need for autonomy, and the increasing awareness of the physical, competitive and social consequences of intense participation (Feigley, 1984). Feigley concludes that by diagnosing the symptoms early, recognizing susceptible individuals, and combating demotivators can assist in preventing and amending this disorder. In 1987, Morgan, Brown, Raglin, O†Connor and Ellickson, engaged in a study on the psychological monitoring of overtraining and staleness involving competitive university swimmers. Overtraining is seen as deliberate and important in endurance sports, which is the reason he chose the sport of swimming. The general procedure was a psychometric assessment using the Profile of Mood States (POMS), which measures relevant levels of mood, tension, depression, anger, vigour, fatigue and confusion. The POMS was administered to approximately 400 members (male & female) of the swimming team over a period of ten years within a realistic setting and training load, instead of one manipulated experimentally. They came to the conclusion that mood state disturbances increased in a dose-response manner as the training stimulus increased. The possibility that the changes in mood state could be attributed to something other than training for a competition like academic, economic or social stressors, led Morgan et al. (1987) to carry out an investigation using swimming and control groups. The findings supported the view that increased mood disturbance with overtraining is associated with the training stimulus rather than the other stressors. This study also looked at an aspect known as tapering and came to the conclusion that this reducing of the training load can be as effective as complete rest, if sufficient time is available. A few years later in 1990, Murphy, Fleck, Dudley and Callister examined the training loads of athletes in a controlled environment as opposed to the previous studies done during a usual training season. In monitoring psychological tribulations, this study used standardized clinical instruments, which hadn†t been used before as there has been little research done in this area. The objective was to discover psychological characteristics of overtraining. Athletes participating in judo at a United States Olympic Training Center were chosen for the study because of the high volume and intensity demands in their training programs. The subjects were monitored over a ten-week period consisting of three phases. They were assessed by use of psychological instruments such as the POMS, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory, the Spielberger State-Trait Personality Inventory, the Derogatis Symptom Checklist and the Psychological Skills Inventory for Sport. An increase in negative mood states following an increase in volume training was not seen in this study as earlier ones have shown. The most reliable gauge used until this point had been the POMS score, but in this study there was no substantial change for the duration of the experiment. Another study was done in 1990, this time by John Silva in order to present conceptual models that define the nature of positive and negative adaptations to training stress using intercollegiate athletes involved in ten different sports. Since little was known about the prevalence of negative responses to training stress, what the athletes perceive as the causes and symptoms, and how often athletes experience negative training stress Silva decided to investigate it. He first divided training stress into three phases, staleness, overtraining and burnout. Staleness, which Silva defines as the initial failure of the body†s adaptive mechanisms to cope with the psychological stress created by training stimuli, was experienced by 72. 7% of the athletes, who perceived it as tolerable. Of the respondents, 66. 1% indicated that overtraining, as Silva describes, as the repeated failure of the body†s adaptive mechanisms to cope with chronic training stress, was bad to experience. The number who experienced the final phase of burnout, (the exhaustive psychophysiological response exhibited as a result of frequent efforts to meet excessive training demands), dropped to 46. 9% and was rated as being the worst effect of negative training stress. A few years later in 1994, Bo Berglund and Hans Safstrom engaged in a study, which monitored the psychological changes during training and racing seasons in fourteen world-class canoeists to determine whether mood disturbances are the result of an increase in training load. On the basis of distress markers, they also tried to titrate the training loads of the athletes during periods of hard training and tapering. Starting in the off-season, (when there was a low training load), and continuing until the end of the season, Berglund administered a Swedish version of the POMS, because previous research had consistently shown that mood responses are sensitive indicators of how well athletes can tolerate overtraining (Berglund, 1994). At the same time, the athletes were also asked on a weekly basis, to complete a training load rating test describing the previous week†s workouts. During the heavy training, the POMS score increased significantly to approximately 160, until the athletes reached the tapering period, where there was a significant improvement in mood state in which the score decreased to 120. The findings were consistent with earlier studies that an evaluation of mood response to hard training can reduce the risk of staleness. Recently, in 1997, Hooper, Mackinnon and Hanrahan were interested in determining whether athletes who are stale showed different values in the POMS from those who are intensely trained but not stale. Hooper indicates staleness in this investigation as when the athlete has reached any of the states of negative adaptation to training stress (staleness, overtraining, or burnout). The POMS mood states of nationally ranked swimmers were measured over an entire season. There were five times during the season when the subjects were tested: early, mid and late season, during tapering and post-competition. This questionnaire was answered before the testing of performance. Hooper et al. (1997) classified the swimmers as â€Å"stale† or â€Å"not stale† at the end of the season based on certain criteria. Compared to previous times, stale athletes demonstrated poorer competitive performances. In contrast, the non-stale athletes showed an improvement in performance. In comparing the POMS scores of the stale versus non-stale swimmers, there was no notable difference. Hooper et al. (1997) coupled this current data with that of a previous study (Morgan et al. , 1988), which showed that significant increases in POMS scores have been observed in athletes after intensified training, which did not result in staleness, to come to their conclusion. The fact that there were only three stale athletes and the POMS assessment was administered only five times on non- training days, are limitations that Hooper et al. (1997) declare in their study. The general conclusion drawn from this study is that while it appears that the POMS may be useful for monitoring for those athletes predisposed to staleness, it may not reliably differentiate between stale and non-stale athletes under all circumstances (Hooper et al. , 1997). Also in 1997, Ralph Vernacchia composed an article on psychological perspectives on overtraining. He uses the combined results of previous studies to define overtraining, identify the overtrained athlete and also caution risk factors for this syndrome. Vernacchia agrees with Morgan†s (1992) use of the word overtraining implying it is an ongoing process, whereas staleness and burnout refer to the outcomes of overtraining. This article emphasizes the need to stress an athlete just before, but never to, the point of exhaustion. There are two motivational patterns displayed by unsuccessful athletes, discussed by Vernacchia, which need to be investigated in order to understand the motivations of the overtrained athlete. They are the undermotivated, overconfident underachiever and the overmotivated, underconfident underachiever. Two tools identified by Vernacchia used to recognize overtrained athletes are the POMS and the Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes Inventory. It concludes by offering recommendations for preventing overtraining in athletes. Overtraining in athletes is a phenomenon, which manifests symptoms that are detrimental to an athlete†s performance. Interest in this subject arose in the mid 1980s, therefore has not been studied to a great depth. Every study has its own set of signs and symptoms associated with this syndrome, but are becoming more similar and distinct as the years go on. The psychological assessment tool that has been used most often throughout these studies is the POMS, which is seen to have both positives and negatives associated with it. The only known treatment for this syndrome is rest, which is why early detection is very important. The longer the overtraining has occurred; the more rest is required. The athlete may then slowly resume training at low volumes on alternate days and gradually work their way back up to reasonable loads, being careful not to let it recur. A general conclusion to date has been that monitoring athletes during periods of strenuous training for symptoms, which are indicative of overtraining, are beneficial in prevention. Coaches and athletes need to be educated on the factors that lead to overtraining in order to eliminate the possibility of occurrence and adhere to the old saying, â€Å"an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure†. Many steps can be taken to prevent overtraining, and they all begin with good communication between the athlete and coach. The athletes could start by keeping a log of training and include how they felt, muscular soreness, fatigue and general heath after each workout. The coach must allow the athlete adequate rest following intense, high volume workouts and it is the athlete†s duty to express concerns when this is not happening. Ultimately, a training program should allow for flexibility, and when early warning signs of overtraining are evident, adjustments need to be made accordingly. In reviewing the literature to date on this topic, and realizing the disastrous consequences for athletes, it is safe to say that being undertrained is far better than being overtrained. Nonetheless, continued research on intensive training and tapering cycles, involving more subjects and a greater range of sports is necessary for the benefit of athletes.

Political Science Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Political Science - Assignment Example The term â€Å"Politics† has been coined from the Greek term ‘Polis’ that meant city – state (Murali, et al, 1). There are five major subfields in the discipline of political science which are American Government, Comparative Government, Public Administration, International Relations and Political Theory (The Subfields of Political Science). American Government – it is concerned with the American system of government and exposes the student to its different functionalities. Comparative Government – this section explains about the different comparisons of the governments in the world. Public Administration- this deals with the study of government bureaucracies. International Relations- it involves a detail study of the different international systems in the world. Political Theory –it is divided into empirical political theory and normative political philosophy. Answer 2 The four primary subfields in political science get their ideas fro m the western political thoughts. Political science is considered as a relatively new concept that began in the early nineteenth century. Before the beginning of political science as a separate discipline, politics was studied as a part of the natural philosophy. There were many terms in political science like parliament that were derived from the existing western political governments. For these reasons, it is considered that the essence of political science is westernized in many respects. Political science is a combination of several subfields each of which pertains to a separate area of study and understanding. For gaining a complete understanding of the subject, it will be necessary to have a fair idea of all its related subfields. For this reason, it is said that the knowledge in political science is a cumulative knowledge of different but inter related topics. Answer 3 Power has been defined in many ways depending on the social and political interests. As a single definition of power is not easy to frame, Galileo had stated that power is an â€Å"essentially contested concepts† and â€Å"concepts the proper use of which inevitably involves endless disputes about their proper uses on the part of their users† (Pansardi, 1). According to the Weber power has been defined as â€Å"the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistances, regardless of the basis on which this probability rests† (Swedberg, 205). Conflict is defined as the situation that arises when there are disagreements between parties over an issue. Social conflict can arise over how the resources of the society are to be utilized and how much of it would be allotted to every individuals. Answer 4 There are different approaches of studying political science. These are Positivism,  Functionalism, Structuralism,  Interpretivism  and Materialism (Marxism). Positivism - Positivism is the philosophy of science which is based on the concept that in social sciences, data is derived from the sensory experiences (Blaikie, 113) and the logical or the mathematical expressions of the data, are in all, an exclusive interpretation for the authoritative knowledge. Obtaining and verification of the data which can be obtained from the senses is called empirical evidence. Positivism view holds the concept that society operates based on the laws found in the physical world. Structuralism –

Tourism and environment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Tourism and environment - Research Paper Example This paper briefly explains the negative impacts of tourism on culture, history and environment of a country. Culture is an important aspect of a country which gives a unique look to the country. For example, Nepal is the only Hindu country in the world whereas Saudi Arabia is witnessed as a traditional Muslim country. Tourism is an opportunity of the locals to know more about the external world. The Muslim dominated Middle East region is advanced rapidly because of the contributions of the westerners. The technology used for extracting the oil from the underground sources by the Middle Eastern countries as are borrowed from the westerners. In fact, in many of the critical positions in Middle East, westerners are working. Emirates Airlines has become one of the best airliners of the world mainly because of the contributions from the managing director, Maurice Flanagan. Thus tourism has many positive effects on cultures. â€Å"While presenting a culture to tourists may help preserve the culture, it can also dilute or even destroy it. The point is to promote tourism in the region so that it would both give incomes and create respect for the local tradition and culture† (Mirbabayev & Shagazatova). Tourism can damage the local culture in many ways. For example, lot of people from Middle East has started to imitate the dress codes and hairstyles of the westerners leaving their traditional dresses and fashion concepts behind. Moreover they started to change even their food habits because of the influence of the westerners. At present, in Middle East, most of the companies are looking for US or UK educated youths for hiring. Traditions and customs can also be changed because of the influence of tourists on a country’s culture. â€Å"Large hotel chain restaurants often import food to satisfy foreign visitors and rarely employ local staff for senior management positions, preventing local farmers and workers from reaping

Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 8

Communication - Essay Example It did not take long before I spotted one beautiful girl lying prostrate, with a bikini pant and some red scarf tied around her breasts. She was not curvy, and neither did she have long hair nor the height I wanted. She did not suit the description of the girl in my heart. But she was dazzling beautiful! It was a captivating scenario, and I could not resist but peep at her time and again, until I decided it was time I made a move, after all, she was a girl, and a girl I wanted. I approached her and said†¦Hey! But her response was not as good. She just raised her head, looked at me and laid flat again, not even responding. Could she be a different kind of girl, who does not entertain men because she is in love and faithful to her partner? That was the only question I kept asking myself, while still fixated on her model-like figure and without moving an inch even after she ignored me. Suddenly, a different thought hit me; maybe it is because I am Black. But No! I am Black, and Blacks are aggressive and cannot fail in a girls hunting mission, since I have always satisfied my desires for girls with girls. I am also tall, dark and handsome and even more, I am masculine. Which girl does not like that? I have been friends with many girls and I have not even noticed their color in the past. I have never had an issue with girls because I am black but only because I did not endeavor commitment at any one time. If anything, why should she be the first to notice I am black, yet I have previously attended an all-white girl’s party and still felt at home with them? In fact they liked me more that way. The fact that I was good at seducing girls is in no doubt. Just two months ago I was able to establish an intimate relationship with a beautiful, curvy and charming girl I met in the movies within just one hour. I was good at it, and I knew it, but here I was fixated and not doing anything to pester her to engage me in a

Science Fiction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Science Fiction - Essay Example The man-machine characters and events must blend so that even if either the character or event or both are grotesque they appear credible to the audience. The levels of consciousness and intelligence of the man-machines must also blend with those of the audience. The highlights of this consciousness and intelligence, or the lack of these, must be intelligible to the audience. The action of the man-machines and their characteristics often lead to their ultimate survival or extermination. The man-machine is guided by his extra-ordinary senses, or sometimes lack of sense in certain areas such as inability to hear. In this scheme, the man-machine makes up for the weakness in one area with extra strength in another. This additional strength comes from the machine part of the man comprising chips and boards elevating the man's physical resources manifold and even to timelessness. The man-machine thing has awareness about his environment and when this awareness is interrupted it creates an element of surprise. This leads to examination and analysis. The man-machine does all this. He has tremendous physical strength. He has the capacity to bounce back from destructive encounters. He has the capacity for self-cure and self-rectification. With the advancement of technology, his powers have increased (Neme: Prosthetic Head). The perfection of the human spirit is not in the man-machine. Technology will have to advance much more for this status. The loose ends of the man-machine will be covered up as technology advances. As of now, the process is very long. It consists of perfecting the behavior of man-machine to those of man himself. Knowledge and self-realization will have to be perfected. Frankenstein's monster The... This essay discusses the science fiction, that has led to many inventions and discoveries. Before the advent of rockets, fiction abounded with stories of man firing projectiles. Subsequently, there were stories of man himself flying, either with the help of machines or by his own efforts with prosthetic wings or wings growing out of his body. The mingling of man and machine or the creation of a being, most of the time a malevolent being that was only partly man began with Frankenstein’s monster. The creation of the monster is by far the most intriguing and fascinating expression of the man-machine theme that has seen the character of Frankenstein’s monster adapt and evolve with the advancement of technology. The character of the monster is successfully used before large audiences to project the tendencies and capabilities of science. Firstly, will science accept the theory of the soul and the spirit? There is plenty of debate on this issue. The man-machine has to deal w ith this question to capably solve the riddle of creating a being that is equivalent to a machine with living emotions. Or will it be possible to create a man-machine with intelligence and information that can be equivalent to the dogma of emotions? Once man has created a machine with enough intelligent and information inputs to correspond to human emotions, he will have crossed the bridge to accept and discuss machines as living beings. Then he will have created a machine that is as alive and tangible as human beings.

Lorem Ipsum Paper Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lorem Ipsum Paper - Coursework Example Nulla ac arcu non augue congue pulvinar. Sed ut libero lacus, vel varius nisl. Phasellus sit amet tempus nunc. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Mauris eu magna ipsum, quis vehicula ante. Nam blandit blandit arcu ut faucibus. Donec erat velit, vehicula vel fringilla at, pretium nec dui. Aenean velit mauris, fermentum vitae sagittis eu, elementum eu nisl. Pellentesque nisi velit, cursus non sollicitudin ut, euismod eu odio. Fusce ultrices lorem vel nibh volutpat ac pulvinar sem pretium. Aliquam scelerisque aliquet ipsum, vitae luctus turpis rutrum vel. Proin eu lectus velit, vitae aliquam elit. Etiam in massa quam. â€Å"The name ’Bluetooth’ reflects the Scandinavian origins of the technology1. It is named after a 10th century Danish viking, King Harald Blatand (translating as 'Bluetooth' in English). He united and controlled Denmark and Norway, hence the association of uniting devices through Bluetooth. Legend has i t that he liked eating blueberries - so much that his teeth became stained with the colour of the fruit, giving rise to his name!† (Stucken, 2010) Sed euismod, ipsum pretium congue fermentum, nibh est blandit lacus, a venenatis magna mi eget nibh. Mauris accumsan, dui vitae aliquet dapibus, enim dui vestibulum velit, vel rhoncus metus urna sed neque. Quisque rhoncus lorem at felis blandit vestibulum interdum erat pellentesque. Donec eget felis nisi, et feugiat turpis. Sed vitae velit sed augue lobortis consequat. Mauris at euismod dolor. Etiam condimentum ullamcorper faucibus. Vivamus viverra, metus sit amet porta pharetra, augue diam molestie erat, in euismod turpis lacus non enim. Mauris eget sapien orci. Praesent sit amet nibh dui. Phasellus non dignissim lectus. Fusce faucibus erat et mi varius rhoncus. Equation 1: Population mean 1 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Morbi scelerisque, turpis sit amet rutrum porttitor, dui elit pulvinar augue, quis ve hicula eros massa non augue. Duis ac tellus at nulla consectetur viverra. Fusce vehicula mauris eget dolor molestie tincidunt. Duis sollicitudin sem vel dui malesuada facilisis. Suspendisse convallis auctor risus, eget mattis ipsum eleifend sit amet. Maecenas dictum dui at metus suscipit scelerisque. Donec sed est eu neque dictum gravida sed vitae tellus. Maecenas vitae nisl eget justo ultrices ornare. Vivamus lectus elit, ultrices in cursus in, malesuada ac tellus. Ut vel fermentum sem. Maecenas ullamcorper odio vitae justo consectetur tristique. The technology, named after a 1000 year old king of Denmark, is one of its kinds (Mitchell, 2012). Curabitur blandit, nunc eu ornare pulvinar, eros urna auctor nisl, nec ornare dui ipsum id tellus. Morbi lobortis congue diam at imperdiet. Phasellus tempus tincidunt justo id feugiat. Proin sit amet nisi lacus, vel facilisis turpis. In molestie sagittis ullamcorper. Donec at dui erat. Donec luctus interdum malesuada. Ut tincidunt sollicitudi n massa quis suscipit. Suspendisse quis augue eget mi aliquet ornare at vitae est. Mauris lobortis turpis pharetra metus commodo sed viverra neque facilisis. Curabitur lobortis dolor dui, sed semper nisl. Pellentesque condimentum quam et erat imperdiet ultricies blandit est rutrum. Ut pulvinar augue in velit pellentesque ornare at quis ligula. Curabitur vitae molestie lacus. Nunc interdum orci nec nulla tincidunt consectetur. Vivamus scelerisque accumsan quam, et suscipit mauris rutrum id. Proin malesuada, lacus nec

Risks Associated With the Use of Tobacco Term Paper

Risks Associated With the Use of Tobacco - Term Paper Example Sadly, the users of tobacco seem not to care or are so addicted to this substance, such that are at an impasse to act. Today many researches by medical practitioners point out that 75% of all lung cancer deaths are tobacco related. Unfortunately, some of those affected are direct passive smoking. Likewise, use of tobacco accounts for more than 20% of heart diseases deaths (Cordry, 2001). Many individuals such as myself have had it difficult coping with the users particularly close friends. Despite these known alarming rate that are associated with use of tobacco and the cause of poor health as well as death many still put their love ones and the public at risk through second hand smoking related risks. However, there are behavioral or other changes can be made to minimize the situation. One of such can be heavy penalty on users of tobacco in public for it affects many non-smokers. Likewise, there is need to regulate advertisement and if possible ban it all together to help curb new users. These will have a direct influence in users and help minimize the associated risks (Graves, 2000). In summary, there are a lot of risks that are directly associated with passive users of tobacco. The risks are health related and affect large portion of the population. However there are a lot that can be done by the government including fines to minimize these

Deena Shakir Essay Example for Free

Deena Shakir Essay Richard Watts Jr. describes the striking similarity between the Salem witch trials and the McCarthy Era as a struggle between the rights of freeman and the mass efforts to destroy them under the guise of defending decency. All good writing conveys a strong message for the reader to take away, and effectively apply to his everyday life. In the novel The Crucible, author Arthur Miller uses 17th Puritan society, and the Salem witch trials as a vehicle to make a strong political statement about the nature of conformity in an overly hysterical society, and the fundamental struggle man faces to retain moral righteousness in the face of a cruel world. Written in the heart of the McCarthy Era, The Crucible makes sweeping statements about the nature of society during a crisis, and how people deal with the introduction of beliefs that differ from their traditional way of thought. Claiming the people of his society are just as intolerant as the Puritans, Miller desperately pleads with them to learn from their mistakes, and not persecute others based on the nature of their beliefs. Through the story of the Salem witch trials, Miller epitomizes the never-ending conflict between an individual and society as a continuous struggle to retain ones moral righteous, and not give in to illogical societal demands. Through the actions of the court officials, the girls, and the Christ figures, Miller effectively points out the manner in which society persecutes those who refuse to conform in their ways of thinking, and the nature of the challenging test individuals are forced to make in such a conflict. The society in Salem also demands conformity from the court system, a place where those who dare to be different are tried. At least on face, it appears that the court simply wants those people who challenge society to be brought to justice. However, during the Salem witch trials, the court officials, who ironically are the one group in society who are single-handedly responsible for administering justice fairly, act simply out of self-interest, striving only to appease the community, and gain fame. Relaying on nothing more than spectral evidence, Danforth and the other court officials condemn those who refuse to conform to societys beliefs. Under the guise of religious duty, Danforth strives solely to appease the community, and benefit his standing in society. He believes that a person is either with the court or he must be counted against it. When one does not conform to the norms of society and challenges it, he is condemned to die. For example, upon discovering that John Proctor does not come to church on Sundays, he automatically assumes that Proctor must be guilty, and must be hanged. He appears motivated solely by the desire to gain fame. For example, in the final act of the play right before the hanging, Reverend Hale tries to convince Danforth to postpone the hanging. Danforth knows that the village expects to see them die this morning and cannot postpone the event because postponement now speaks a floundering on my [Danforths] part. Danforths actions show that he not only acts out of self motivation and the desire to appease society, but also fails the to overcame his conflict with society. Reverend John Hale, on the other hand, also appointed to work with the court during the witch trials, makes his decisions based on his own morals instead of what society prefers. Hale, an expert on witch trials and a stranger in Salem finds it difficult to draw a clear opinion on them that come accused before court. Being a minister of the Lord, Hale judges others based on clear evidence and does not dare [to] take a life without proof. His morals prevent him from just simply doing what will appeal to society. Even though he desires to be allied with the best minds in Europe- kings, philosophers, scientists, and ecclesiasts of all churches, he, unlike Danforth and the court officials, refuses to let his personal ambition come in the way of administering justice fairly. He even rejects his religious doctrine in the name of justice, claiming that life life is Gods most precious gift; no principle, however glorious, may justify the taking of it. Unlike Danforth and his selfish motivation, Reverend Hale refuses to conform to what society dictates, clinging on to his own moral beliefs.

The Poverty In Africa Economics Essay

The Poverty In Africa Economics Essay In recent years the international community has shown increasing concern with poverty in the developing world. At the Social Summit in Copenhagen, the issue was placed at the top of the agenda and more recently the Millennium Summit set a target to halve poverty by the year 2015. While the United Nations, including UNCTAD, had for many years drawn the attention of the international community to the need to address the plight of the poorest and the least developed countries. Despite resource rich African countries, its hardly possible to accept that Africa is poor. But the question remains, if they are not, why the vast majority of African countries are clustered at or near the bottom of the United Nations Human Development Index.While economic growth is considered essential for poverty reduction, it is also recognized that growth may not automatically trickle down to the poor. Thus, the current approach emphasizes policies that facilitate the access of the poor to human, physical and financial assets to improve their earning capacity While macroeconomic stability and structural reforms continue to be considered to hold the key to sustained and rapid growth, it is also recognized that stabilization and structural adjustment policies may exert a temporary adverse impact on the poor. Thus, it is advocated that such policies should be accompanied by safety nets and targeted spending programmes to mitigate their possible adverse consequences for poverty. Africa is not poor; it is poorly managed  [1]  This statement was made by Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, President of Liberia. She stated it in August 2009 during her interview with the BBC radio documentary series, to answer question in similar circumstances. It was aimed against corruption and she meant to assert that if corrupt officials mismanaged public funds or property, then countries are poor. But with good quality of government under the rule of law is already a fine predictive for wealth. Other key factor is the lack of technology, Africa is very rich with natural resources such as fertile soil, enough rain and sunshine for cultivation, raw materials, oil, gold and many other major resources but lacking ways of exploiting them. No advance technology or industrial infrastructure to channel these resources through real incentive to accelerate the development. Insufficient education is another significant factor contributing to poverty high level. It can never be overemphasized be cause education can make changes about everything. Today African children do not have access to education which is required to let them gain knowledge and skills, to equip them to have better ideas and opportunities for employment. Other correlated problems as well, for example, lack of skills and strong policies, and that is low economic performance with high inflation, let alone unproductive attitudes towards globalization. The trade situation is quite unfair in addition to tariffs and subsidies, which drive prices down and make it harder for African countries to sell agricultural goods at global markets. Still there should be a movement in the industrialized world to recognize this unfairness and get the system changed, though it is somewhat complex, economically to explain how it is going to happen. African politics are usually based on violence, instead of building and fix the future they destroy everything, and use natural resources for the short term gain of those in power. A nother problem is that African countries still trade with their colonial masters at a loss instead of trading with each other. poverty reduction strategies cannot succeed if they are not accompanied by policies to sustain rapid growth and improve income distribution, Why almost all fifty three African countries are considered as poor? Poverty has many dimensions and causes, and it is clear that different kinds of action are needed at different levels (international, regional, national and sub-national) if it is to be significantly reduced. Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. Africa is the worlds poorest inhabited continent. Though parts of the continent have made significant gains over the last few years, of the 175 countries reviewed in the United Nations Human Development Report 2003, 25 African nations ranked lowest amongst the nations of the world. This is partly due to its turbulent history. The geo-historical situations of African people should be examined while addressing poverty. Same like inhabitants in others continents, the African people were and up to today are mostly dependent on agriculture, therefore they were needed to live in the regions where they were located nearby the river in Nile Valley, in the coasts of North and West Africa, along the Niger, in the eastern highlands and in South Africa. They were living in traditional rustic lifestyle and could manage their requirement by hunting and farming in the green areas during the history, but gradually due to tropical climate situation and high temperature in their living environment, decreasing the water recourses, increasing the number of people in living areas and reduction of their agricultural resources, because of weather fluctuations within the recent centuries, the problem of African people started. The impacts of climate change are likely to be considerable in tropical regions. Developing countries are generally considered more vulnerable to the effects of climate change than more developed countries, largely attributed to a low capacity to adapt in the developing world. Of the developing countries, many in Africa are seen as being the most vulnerable to climate variability and change. High levels of vulnerability and low adaptive capacity in the developing world have been linked to factors such as a high reliance on natural resources, limited ability to adapt financially and institutionally, low per capita GDP and high poverty, and a lack of safety nets. The challenges for development are considerable, not least because the impacts are complex and highly uncertain. Fighting for water and food made them busy with themselves so that they neglected to communicate with people who were living in other parts of the world. They didnt know how to sail and could not travel overseas and therefore they could not prepare their requirement by trading with other nations and therefore, they were isolated from the rest of the world in the recent centuries. Such isolation as well as the ignorance and illiteracy of African people, their fast growing population, their sectarian conflicts from one side and arrival of non African adventurers to this rich continent and starting the slavery were all imposed to the people who were not deserved and lead them to a new era of poverty. Africa is still grappling to undo a legacy dominated by trade with their former colonial rulers. For instance, Senegals biggest trading partner is France, while Gambia trades extensively with the United Kingdom.  [2]  Although Senegal surrounds Gambia, trade between the two neighbors is minimal. Worse enough the continents railways and roads often lead to ports rather than link countries across regions. Much dependency on aid and reluctant of solving problems doesnt help Africa to emerge out from being considered as poor continent. Lack of sufficient infrastructure More than two-thirds of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are currently experiencing a debilitating power crisis. The crisis is the result of many factors: strong economic growth, which has in turn led to the rapid increase in electricity consumption and urbanization; and poor planning for boosting generation and distribution capacity and maintaining infrastructure. The human and economic consequences are significant. There is an urgent need to address the problems plaguing the power sector, but a large gap exists between infrastructure needs and the availability of resources. An estimated USD 40.8 billion a year in investments are needed for Africas power sector, but ODA and funding from the public sector are not sufficient to meet this need. Consequently, the private sector will need to play a significant role in closing the demand-resources gap by providing funds and expertise. The need for at least a basic level of infrastructure in Africa is quite critical in all sectors and because of its missing in %75 of African residential area, millions of lives are threatened every day for lack of clean water or safe sanitation. In recent years the continents development objectives are badly affected by poor infrastructure. There is very little investment made by developing countries in improving the infrastructure conditions in Africa and even most of this small quantity of investment (roughly two-thirds) have been focused in the telecommunications sector which has no relativity with other major sectors i.e. health care and education. Due to personal experience of my father in Nigeria as one of the richest African country, majority of people even in some big cities like Port Harcourt in river state which is considered as one of the richest oil production centers in Delta Niger, are suffering from lack of access to basic infrastructures like electricity, hygienic fr esh water piping network, sanitary and drainage systems, suitable domestic transportation and well constructed roads railway at their home. Political instability Although the leadership issue is considered as one of the major problems in the world but its horrible condition in many African states made their political situation quite instable. Most of the African governors are busy with their own business and hand in hand of foreigners are draining the public resources out in favor of their overseas partners. Majority of African leaders are dictating those policies which are just match with their own private and not the public interests. The consequence of such kind of leadership leads the African people to sectarian conflicts and creates Political instability for the country. In most cases the African leaders try to run the country by copying the modern western state systems at domestic level and neglect the tradition and culture of their own people. With such negligence, the political atmosphere in most African states is not well enough for safe investment and its level has been restricted to the sectors for washing out their resources in fa vor of western countries. As a result of political leadership of the current governors, the economic condition of African people has gone under dominant of prescribed economical policies of western companies which play a significant role in the deprivation of African populations of the essential key services in development. Some of political economists are in this belief that the foreign investors are not responsible for improvement of the living standards of the people in the regions where they make profits. Although this concept is commented by some others but even if there was no argue in this belief, no one may disagree with the role of African political leaders in organizing the consequence of their leadership and management on economic conditions in Africa which has obviously had serious affections in provision of essential services such as health, education and infrastructure and there is no doubt that in absence of these fundamental services, the productive potentiality of people in their own societies will be decreased and they go through deprivation and poverty more and more. Main effects of poverty in Africa and its consequences: Poverty can have a devastating effect, such as lack of food, improper healthcare; homelessness and lack of jobs all play a role in the effects of poverty.  [3]  A recorded number of people die each day in Africa due to extreme poverty. 14% of children in Sub Saharan African countries alone are estimated to be underweight, out of 28% of children who are underweight in all poorer nations of the world. And it will increase because of low progress in the development and miss the Millennium Development Goals target of halving the proportion of underweight children.  [4]  Food and water is in low supply because of nonexistent infrastructure. As a result, poverty effects can easily cause inability to develop, afford modern technology, provides basic services and access, mistrust of governments- leading to revolutions which will paralyze the governmental system and more rivalry over few resources. However, the significant consequences of poverty in Africa are more closely connected with uneven economic growth. More than a half of population lives in extreme poverty, which is defined as subsisting on less than $1 a day by the World Bank. The huge waste of human resources, others are mainly on human suffering and death, high mortality rate, epidemic diseases, high illiteracy, ignorance of problems and poor hygiene, water and sanitation. If the current trend of poverty continue, then no hope to alleviate the poverty Lack of sufficient health care and education In 2008 around 1.4 million people died from AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa and 1.9 million people became infected with HIV. Due to lack of standard levels of educations in little academic training, lack of medical centers and facilities in training of physicians, few number of hospitals, insufficient medicines and medical equipment, lack of a suitable nursing care and many other interrelated medical issues, result to a bad health condition in African countries. Although some activities have been done by International Health Organization under U.N. supervision but they can temporarily figure out the health problems of about %25 of Africans who are living in urban areas and the major remaining population of the continent who are living in rural areas and villages are almost deprived from this small medical services provided by international society. To sort out the Africans health and medical care, the three principle health system inputs should be seriously noted and provided by the global society. Training of human resources as the clinical and non-clinical staff who are responsible for delivering health services, is considered as one these three which requires a comprehensive programming and establishment of colleges and universities, forwarding the motivated skillful educated missions as well as the required tools and equipment. The budget elements of physical capital are considered as the third dependent direct principle in improvement of health care in Africa. In the absence of massively expanded prevention, treatment and care efforts, it is expected that the AIDS death toll in sub-Saharan Africa will continue to rise. This means the impact of the AIDS epidemic on these societies will be felt most strongly in the course of the next ten years and beyond. Its social and economic consequences are already widely felt, not only in the health sector but also in education, industry, agriculture, transport, human resources and the economy in general. The AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa threatens to devastate whole communities, rolling back decades of development progress. Political instability and Corruption Good governance alone will not end poverty, but we cannot significantly reduce poverty, especially within a human rights approach, without good governance. Good governance is necessary at all levels, from the global to the local, but it is also necessary to identify those levels of governance requiring special attention, and this may vary from country to country: it is not always the case that governance at the national level is the central problem as far as poverty alleviation is concerned. There are problems in Africa for several decades even after many countries in the continent went through transitions from colonialism to independence, is not a deniable fact. In terms of political instability in Africa, it is also undeniable that the continent has had some difficult moments during the last fifty years or so. But what is still unexplained in the many analyses that have been looking at events in Africa is the fact that in almost all the cases of political instability in Africa, it is evident that the major problem is leadership. In this context, Africa has seen its freedom heroes turn into dictators, while plunder of natural resources, politics of exclusion and deprivation to tilt the balance of power continues to dominate the public sphere. Moreover, these problems have been pointed out and fought gallantly by ordinary Africans who have over the years, expressed their discontent with regimes imposed upon them, through the complicity of the international community. Its strongly believed that most of the major problems in Africa are rooted in corruption of the leaders and governors who have sat on the throne of dictatorship and oppress their people and make them more miserable. Its quite obvious they never let the people have an acceptable standard of social rights for election of their nominated candidates as their leaders. Although its a long way and bumpy road to achieve their goal for making a democratic society but they have no chance and must go straight forward. They should pay its worth and pave the path toward democracy peacefully. In an actual democratic system, all decision of the governors will be checked, debated, revised and ultimately approved by the peoples representatives. The national recourses and assets will be managed to be spent for provision of vital and ordinary requirement of people like health care, training and infrastructural welfare. If you go through the governing systems in African countries, you will find an apparent frame of democratic system but in most cases, you will come to know that majority of the people have no chance to vote for the key policies in management of their country. The corrupted high officials have a direct control on all centers of political and economical power and never let them to be supervised by the peoples actual representatives. They have even enough influence in selection of the parliament members. We should never forget the significant role of western companies and investors in mastery of such dictators who have been elected and supported by them in a so called democratic way. How African countries can build solutions to solve those problems? The deepest challenge for countries in the poorest parts of the world, especially Africa, is governance. The African continent has been ravaged both by civil war and conflict and by rapacious leaders who have plundered the natural wealth of their nations. Corrupt rulers and their weak regimes have arguably been the single most important drag on African development. The steps are to focus on good governance, social responsibility and elimination of corruption. Developed their educational systems, their infrastructure, and their labor markets which will able them to exploit their resources in the global markets. Increase economic input on national income through the important exports of major resources such as oil, gold, raw materials, timbers, fishers etc. In many instances capitalism can generate adequate resources to eradicate extreme poverty, but it is continually undermined by corruption and self interests. It is an unfortunate truth that the poorer the country, the more difficult it is to put aside these unwanted programs by products of economic and social growth.  [5]  Encourage agriculture sectors, proper management of resources and foreign investment. This can be met through the demand of trade reform that will help small scale farmers and enriching their agriculture and other sectors like services and labor. In other words governmen ts should target the extremely poor people and enabled them to contribute to development by improving their health, education, provide agriculture subsidies instead of wasting expenditures all will lead to economic growth. There is need to educate the population and motivated them to maintain it. Donations can help as well to build basic infrastructure. The African nations need political and economic policies that will aid their growth and lessen their dependence on outside charity. In order to eliminate poverty is to be stabilized in peace and may be reduce the population to have access to more food instead of more people with the less food. Even few African countries that have experienced sustained high growth over the last few decades are now reported to have reduced their absolute poverty levels, but the important aspect is that the gains of economic growth should be distributed fairly to reach the poor people in the country  [6]   Democratization Making money and profitable business is the major task of international investors and companies. Its quite understandable that they are not responsible for social welfare and improvements in the host country but we should never forget that in most cases, many of them and even their investing policies are controlled and supported by western countries in Europe and America. Democratization of African countries is not only beneficial for the people but also it may secure the investment and business of foreign companies and even increase their profit. In this view, I believe the western countries and the U.S.A can play a considerable role in settlement of democracy in this rich continent through European Union and United Nation organization. As long as the African governors are just sticking to power and do not care about their national interests, this is the international responsibility to warn them in political congregations for their misbehaviors and isolate their administrations through intelligent sanctions from one side and practically protect the people by promotion of their life standards through dictating policies to their citizen companies and investors for win-win business in favor of African people as well as themselves. Will Money Solve Africas problems? Some of the economical experts are in believe that investment in Africa may promote the level of knowledge and create prosperity and stability and will improve capabilities of the people to integrate their continent into global networks of trade. In this way the existence of three failures of corruption and abuse of power by African governments, the exploiting policies of extractive industries and the waste of resources by an ineffective aid system will be likely impossible. Some of the proponents of this belief are saying that the key solution in Africas development problems is to support the African local entrepreneurs by invested capitals. As an opponent of above ideas its believed as long as the prolonged violent conflicts, bad governance, excessive external interference, and lack of an independent policy, money cannot sort out the Africas development problems. The matter in Africa has not been ever lack of money because this continent is quite rich and full of resources with fer tile soil for agricultural productions and potentially has the key elements for progress and as initial steps; investment may facilitate the process of economical improvement. Massive food production will solve Africas poverty problem Hunger is a horrible phenomenon which is considered as a critical issue in Africa. Among five continents, Africa is the only one which cannot to feed itself. Because of the fast growing of population, the shortages in agricultural productions is leading the continent to new potential conflicts and the peace situation in many African nations is fragile. Around 300 million people will not have enough to eat today. Despite millions of hectares of unused cultivated land, more than $19 billion is spent in Africa for buying food each year. Donation or import of agricultural products is like a sedative for the illness and for actual treatment of hunger and poverty; African countries should focus their efforts on investment policies in agricultural sectors and training programs for more efficient water management, new techniques of cultivation, irrigation and harvesting. In addition of these issues and to rapidly increase productivity, the fertilizers as well as sufficient suitable machinery and equipment for conservation of agricultural products should be provided for the African farmers. The EU strategy for supporting Africa Witnessing the case of Mexico, it has the advantage of sharing a 2,000-mile border with the worlds greatest economic power. Since the North American Free Trade Agreement went into effect in 1994, the United States has given Mexican goods duty-free access to its markets, has made huge investments in the Mexican economy, and has continued to absorb millions of Mexican laborers. During the 1994-95 peso crisis, the U.S. Treasury even underwrote Mexicos financial stability. Outside economic help does not get much better. But since 1992, Mexicos economy has grown at an annual average rate of barely more than one percent per capita. This figure is far less than the rates of the Asian growth superstars. It is also a fraction of Mexicos own growth of 3.6 percent per year in the two decades that preceded its 1982 debt crisis. Access to external markets and resources has not been able to make up for Mexicos internal problems. A notable exception to the limitations of outside assistance is European Union membership. By offering its poorer eastern and southern neighbors not just aid transfers and market access but the prospect of joining the union, the EU has stimulated deep policy and instit utional changes and impressive growth in about 20 countries. But the exception proves the rule: the EU is not just an economic arrangement; it is also a political system in which member states transfer extensive legal powers to the central authority. In return, the center shoulders significant responsibilities for the economic well-being of each member. Unfortunately, accession to the EU or to any other major power is not an option for most of the poorest parts of the world-and increasing the financial resources and trading opportunities for the poorest countries is not a sufficient substitute. Although there is a long way towards a sustainable development in Africa but within the frame of the African Union, the New Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) and international organizations, the EU members have tried to equip the African states with political and economic roadmaps and provide them with a vision for better future. Regardless of existing different historical attitudes, cultures, religions, and traditions as well as different geographical and economical conditions with various political regimes in Africa, there are some African countries who are experiencing sustained periods of peace, security, economic and political stability and democratic methods of peaceful life but at the same time many of African people are suffering from long-term conflicts in their lands. One of the major roles of the European Union in assistance of African people is to support them in human development and economic growth programs. A highly unequal distribution of income has an excessive impact on poverty levels among the people and such programs will be very helpful in democratization of Africa. To reduce the rate of poverty, Job creation and social development as major challenges shall be considered as other solutions which should be included in the EU strategy for supporting of Africa. To achieve these and due to cl ose relation of employment to education and training, working on eradication of illiteracy is quite important especially for women and ethnic minorities. Improving the health care and hygiene conditions in African states, in particular controlling and treatment of the HIV/AIDS as a very serious pandemic disease inside the whole Africa shall be considered as another supporting program which should be included in the European Unions strategy in Africa. Climate change is something which may badly affect the life situation of African people and increase the level poverty among them. When the air temperature is going up, it affects more to the climate in Africa because the continent is environmentally very diverse. The shortages in water resources, increasing desertification, flooding and drought are all the common consequences of climate change and as a result of them, the food security and health of all human beings in the world and particularly in Africa will be worsen. The process of Increasing the desert lands in almost half of the Africa specially in areas being located along desert margins and lack of compensation of water resources because of little raining fall below the world average are the two threatening factors of the humans lives and due to these concerns, many conflicts can be potentially created. About 17% of the worlds forests are located in Africa, and deforestation and because of shortages in earning and food resou rces, they are changing to dessert by the poor people.Therefore climate change adaptation program is another urgent necessity for Africas development and should be noted and attended well by the European Union. European Union help Africa through preventing or settling on going conflicts towards peace and security aims to establish necessary framework for development base on their partnership.  [7]  Sustainable development in Africa requires a safe and secure environment. Peace is therefore an essential way of progress. The Partnership is a better key component than without for Africas future inside and outside its borders. Democracy and the respect for human rights are shared values between Europe and Africa. They are also critical issues to the development of any society. With the Joint Africa-EU Strategy the two sides have committed to conduct an in depth dialogue on human rights and democratic governance, to promote these values on a global level and to strengthen their cooperation in this field. From this dialogue and cooperation comes understanding, cooperation, and programs that bond leaders, civil society, and citizens in the pursuit of governance and human rights. EU has also en hanced trade and deeper regional integration as essential contributions to development, economic growth and employment, and ultimately the eradication of poverty in Africa.  [8]  As it believed that European Union has undergone a successful process of integration, it can share its experiences with Africa in a good faith. EU conditionality for donations and economic reforms to Africa should not ignore the poverty alleviation programs and should focus on helping the poor in Africa by getting the benefits of the globalization through the national level economic reforms. At domestic level, Africa/EU should have stronger safety nets in macroeconomic management which could benefit the poor people and more investment in proper healthcare, education, technology, basic infrastructure and many other things. Recommendation and conclusion For the solutions to overcome or to reduce extreme poverty in Africa, the key points are good policies and prope

Building A BJT Amplifier Engineering Essay

Building A BJT Amplifier Engineering Essay Students were required to research and design a BJT Amplifier. This amplifier was to be built in the laboratory and tested to verify specifications. Calculations for resistors and capacitors were done and theoretical values were obtained. The circuit was built using Multisim 7 and then simulated to obtain practical values for resistors and capacitors. This is called DC Analysis. When the circuit met the required specifications, building of the BJT Amplifier could begin. Testing of the BJT Amplifier was done using the Feedback FG601 Function Generator which provided an input and a Tektronix 2205 Oscilloscope which showed the output waveform. Also, the Fluke 177 Multi-meter was used when checking for quiescent voltages and currents. The voltage gain, maximum symmetrical swing and the lower cut-off frequency for the BJT Amplifier was tested. The results obtained during tested were compared with the simulated and theoretical results. Success of the BJT Amplifier can only be achieved when the tested values duplicate that of the given specifications. The report that follows records calculations performed, circuits designed and the results of the tests that was done on the BJT Amplifier. List of Abbreviations Voltage gain BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor Current gain Input Impedance Base current Collector current Current across resistor Current across resistor Current across the original emitter resistor Current across the new emitter resistor Current across the unbypassed resistor Resistor used in the potential divider Collector resistor Resistor used in the potential divider Original emitter resistor New emitter resistor (bypassed) Unbypassed resistor Load resistor Base emitter voltage Voltage across the collector and emitter Input voltage Output voltage Voltage across resistor Voltage across the collector resistor Voltage across resistor Voltage across the original emitter resistor Voltage across the new emitter resistor Voltage across the bypassed resistor Introduction It is known that transistors are widely used in electronic devices. This design project is ideal as it enables students to get practical experience in the designing of electrical devices. The practical and theoretical knowledge needed for this design project challenges students as they have to validate calculated values and explain why each process was done. Since the BJT Amplifier has to be designed theoretically, students will understand the limitations provided by the equipment. They will also grasp an appreciation of the simulated circuit model as it relates to the tests performed on the circuit. The theory from Electronics provided valuable knowledge in designing the BJT amplifier. Support was given from lectures based from Engineering Skills and Applications. The practical knowledge was covered in previous laboratory exercises which were designated to familiarizing students with the various equipments. Also, demonstrations were provided by the technicians on the use of the breadboard which is the core building block of the BJT amplifier. BACKGROUND INFORMATION Transistors are important components used in technological devices around the world. Computers, cell phones, and radios are some of the many devices that require transistors as part of their circuit. The transistor is a three terminal, solid state electronic device. In a three terminal device we can control electric current or voltage between two of the terminals by applying an electric current or voltage to the third terminal. This three terminal character of the transistor is what allows us to make an amplifier for electrical signals, like the one in our radio. (cited) The three terminals are the collector terminal, the base terminal and the emitter terminal. There are three possible configurations of a transistor; the common collector, common base and the common collector. In the common emitter amplifier configuration, the emitter terminal is common to both the input and output circuits. The current gain does not have any effect on the collector current , or the collector-emitter voltage . A quiescent point is the operating point of a device which when applied to a device, causes it to operate in a desired fashion. It also refers to the dc conditions of a circuit without an input signal. The Q-point is sometimes indicated on the output characteristics curves for a transistor amplifier. There are different biasing arrangements associated with transistor configurations. These include; simple bias, self stabilizing bias, and H-type bias. The simple bias circuit consists of a fixed bias resistor and a fixed load resistor. For this bias design, the transistor configuration being used is the common emitter. The dc current gain or beta, is the ratio of the dc collector current to the dc base current. This simple bias circuit is similar to the self bias circuit with one difference: the base resistor is returned to the transistor collector instead of the supply voltage. If the transistor used had a high current gain, then the collector voltage would fall. As is connected to the collector then the base current would be reduced to counter the effect. If the transistor had a low value of beta, then the collector voltage would rise. This in turn provides more base current for the transistor to conduct harder and stabilize the q-point. H-TYPE BIASING is the most widely used biasing scheme in general electronics. For a single stage amplifier this circuit offers the best resilience against changes in temperature and device characteristics. The disadvantage is that a couple of extra resistors are required, but this is outweighed by the advantage of excellent stability. The circuits below: The quiescent points are usually fixed for varying collector currents in H-type biasing. If increases, then this will result in an increase in . This increase in the emitter current will flow through the emitter resistor and from the equation V=IR, the voltage across the resistor will increase. This increase in voltage across the emitter resistor will reduce the effective base-emitter voltage resulting in an increase in the stability of the collector current. Also, this type of biasing introduces a potential divider situation, where resistors R1 and R2 fix the base potential of the transistor. With H-type bias, maximum symmetrical sw ing can be calculated. Design OBJECTIVES Various specifications for the design of the BJT Amplifier were given by the rubric. The specifications given are listed in the following; The Voltage Gain must be 50 The Lower Cut-off Frequency must be below 100Hz The BJT Amplifier must be capable of driving a 100KÃŽÂ © load A 15V supply voltage must be used as the source The output voltage must have maximum symmetrical swing A 2N3904 Transistor must be used CHOOSING CONFIGURATION The following transistor configuration comparison chart shows the different types of configurations; Common Emitter Common Base Common Collector (Sedra Smith, 2007) AMPLIFIER TYPE    COMMON BASE      COMMON EMITTER      COMMON EMITTER (Emitter Resistor)      COMMON COLLECTOR (Emitter Follower)   Ã‚  Ã‚   INPUT/OUTPUT PHASE RELATIONSHIP 0 ° 180 ° 180 ° 0 ° VOLTAGE GAIN HIGH MEDIUM MEDIUM LOW CURRENT GAIN LOW  Ã‚ ¡ MEDIUM MEDIUM  Ã‚ ¢ HIGH POWER GAIN LOW HIGH HIGH MEDIUM INPUT RESISTANCE LOW MEDIUM MEDIUM HIGH OUTPUT RESISTANCE HIGH MEDIUM MEDIUM LOW The common emitter transistor amplifier configuration was chosen and not the common base configuration as the common base configuration produces a voltage gain but generates no current gain between the input and the output signals. (Doug Gingrich, 1999) The following figure shows the general configuration of the common emitter transistor amplifier configuration; Figure 1: General configuration of the common emitter transistor amplifier configuration Methodology DC Analysis The function of the DC Analysis is to allow DC biasing of the design to be verified. The DC biasing does not involve capacitors as DC is not transmitted by capacitors. The DC design is mainly used to establish the Q-points in the circuit. Q-points are the operating points in the circuit for which the transistor will perform at optimum performance. The circuit used for the DC Analysis is shown in the following diagram; Figure 2: Circuit used for DC Analysis Choosing and Before DC Analysis could be done, the various components which will be used in the circuit need to be calculated. These components are; , , , . From the specifications given, the voltage supply has a value of 15V and this is used to power the circuit. Before the values of these components could be calculated, the quiescent currents must be known, as well as the current flowing through the potential divider resistor . The data sheet used is based on the 2N3904 transistor. A range for the collector current is given, within which the transistor will operate with optimum performance. Using the Base Emitter ON Voltage vs Collector Current graph found on the data sheet, a value of was read off. The graph used is shown in the following diagram; Figure 3: Graph used to find a collector current The transistor will be built in an environment where the temperature is approximately 25. Hence the 25 line on the graph was used a reference line. From the data sheet, the Base Emitter ON Voltage was given as 0.65V. Hence, using the 25 line and reading off a voltage of 0.65V, the collector current was found to be 1. The base voltage , of the transistor depends on the current flowing through the potential divider. i.e. the current sets the base of the transistor and hence the value of . Any change in the resistance or gain of the transistor would result in an unwanted change in the base current . Also, the potential divider resistors contribute to the input impedance of the amplifier. This input impedance needs to be much more than the output impedance of the function generator. Hence, this is another reason to keep small. was chosen as Calculating The emitter resistor voltage , must be chosen accordingly as this voltage will affect the stability, maximum symmetrical swing and the gain of the amplifier. This voltage should be chosen such that it is greater than the base emitter voltage of the transistor. As mentioned before, the base emitter voltage as taken from the data sheet is 0.65V. This is to ensure that the emitter resistor voltage will not be significantly affected by small changes in . This condition would increase the stability of the transistor. For maximum symmetrical voltage swing, the emitter resistor voltage should be as small as possible. The base current and the collector current will both flow out of the common emitter terminal. Hence, for to remain constant, the base current must be as small as possible to allow negligible current to flow through the base terminal. Assuming the variation possible across the emitter and collector resistors caused variations in is , is calculated using the following equation; (1) The emitter resistor was calculated using the following equation; (2) Calculating From previous statements, For maximum symmetrical swing, half of the remaining voltage should be dropped across the collector resistor . The maximum symmetrical output voltage is calculated using the following equation; (3) Therefore, the voltage across the collector emitter terminal and the collector resistor is 6.75V. From the data sheet, the maximum device dissipation for the NPN 2N3904 transistor is at 25. Since all the power dissipation occurs at the collector junction for the active region, the following equation must be satisfied; (4) This is the range for which the transistor will operate with optimum performance. The power dissipated in the transistor from equation (4) is; , which is well within the specified range. A value for the component was found using the following equation; (5) Calculating and The current flows through the resistor . The value of is calculated using the following equation; (6) Since the current approaches a junction, it splits into and . flows through the potential divider resistor and flows to the base terminal. As previously stated, the base current, must not affect the base voltage by much. Hence the base current is considered negligible and all the current from is assumed to flow through . Hence, is calculated using the following equation; (7) Since some of the component values calculated was not available in stores, the closest value had to be chosen. The standard value that was chosen for each component is shown in the following table; Resistor Calculated Value/ Standard Value/ 6.75 6.8 1.5 1.5 128.5 130 21.5 24 Table 1: Standard values chosen for resistors Calculation of Input Impedance of transistor From the design specifications listed above, the lower cut off frequency must be below 100Hz. Also, as a value for was found using a graph of Current Gain vs Collector Current from the data sheet, a value for was found. The graph used is shown in the following diagram; For a collector current of 1, a gain of 130 was read off from the graph. But since this gain is above the required voltage gain of 50, certain calculations had to be done to reduce this gain and these calculations will be shown in due course. The following equation is used to calculate the input impedance of the transistor; (8) Calculation of Voltage Gain in the Circuit The following equation was used to calculate the voltage gain of the circuit; (9) Calculation of The required voltage gain of the transistor is 50. Hence, in order to reduce this gain, resistors are usually bypassed with the aid of capacitors. In this particular case, the only resistor that needs to be bypassed is the emitter resistor. Using the AC equivalent circuit, the following equation will be used to calculate the value of the unbypassed resistor; (10) where is the unbypassed emitter resistor is From the specification sheet given, is Calculation of new emitter resistor But Hence, if is split into two resistors and , then is found from the following; (11) As there are no standard 1.4kà °Ã‚ Ã…“ ´ resistor is the stores, was used as 1.5kà °Ã‚ Ã…“ ´. The following table illustrates the standard emitter resistors; Resistor Calculated Value/ Standard Value/ 100 100 1400 1500 Table 2: Standard values chosen for emitter resistors CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS Figure 4: Diagram showing circuit analyzed The following circuit calculations involve the standard component values and is based on the circuit in the above diagram.. These circuit calculations show the theoretical value of the quiescent currents and voltages. Theoretical values occur due to the circuit being under ideal conditions. The voltage gain of this circuit will be calculated as well as the maximum symmetrical output voltage across the transistor. The calculations are as follows; which flows through the collector resistor Using the potential divider rule; The voltage drop across is the same as, as both resistors are in parallel. was found on the data sheet as specified previously as . Under ideal conditions, it is assumed that is negligible when compared with as stated previously. for small changes in where is 130 since negligible current flows into the base terminal AC ANALYSIS The AC Analysis is used to calculate the components which would not have worked under DC biasing. These components are , and . If placed in the DC circuit, the capacitors would act as an open circuit, not allowing any current to flow. Also, the input and output impedance of the circuit was calculated. Circuits Used The following circuit was used in the AC Analysis; Figure 5: Circuit used for AC Analysis The following figure illustrates the AC equivalent of the above circuit; Zout Zin Figure 6: Ac equivalent of circuit shown in figure 5 Calculation of Capacitors The capacitor values can now be calculated using the following equation; (12) where is the reactance of the circuit f is the frequency C is the capacitance The capacitors behavior is defined in terms of reactance. The reactance of a capacitor is the ratio of the voltage to the current. The equation relating the reactance to the capacitance is given in equation (12). is the total input impedance of the capacitor (13) where is the input impedance , as the input is taken from the ground to the output terminals of the function generator. (14) Using equation 12; But from the specification sheet, f must be less than 100Hz. f 100 (15) Calculation of For the input coupling capacitor ; Calculation of For the output coupling capacitor ; Where is and Calculation of For the bypass capacitor ; where (16) But As stores does not have these calculated capacitor values, the following standard capacitors were used; Capacitor Calculated Value/ Standard Value/ 0.175 10 0.234 10 14.985 100 Table 3: Standard values chosen for capacitors CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS The following circuit calculations involve the standard component values and are based on the circuit shown in figure 3. These circuit calculations show the theoretical value of the quiescent currents and voltages. Theoretical values occur due to the circuit being under ideal conditions. The voltage gain of this circuit will be calculated as well as the maximum symmetrical output voltage across the transistor. The calculations are as follows; which flows through the collector resistor Using the potential divider rule; (17) The voltage drop across is the same as, as both resistors are in parallel. was found on the data sheet as specified previously as . (18) (19) Under ideal conditions, it is assumed that is negligible when compared with as stated previously. (20) for small changes in (21) where is 130 (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) since negligible current flows into the base terminal Figure 6 was used as a reference point to calculate the voltage gain and input impedance of the circuit. Equation (10) was used to calculate the voltage gain of the circuit; The maximum output voltage swing without clipping is calculated as using the following equation; (33) The following equation is used to calculate the input impedance of the circuit; (34) For simplification in calculation, (35) (36) COMPUTER SIMULATION DC Analysis This design was tested theoretically in the previous section and must now be tested on a computer simulation program. The simulation program used to simulate this circuit is Multisim 7. This software creates the circuit design and simulates the circuit practically and not theoretically. All quiescent voltages and currents were determined as well as the cut-off frequency, voltage gain and maximum symmetrical output voltage. The graph analyzer tool on the Multisim program was used to display these graphs. The following figure illustrates the simulation done for the DC Analysis; Voltage Gain The following circuit was used to observe the voltage gain of the BJT Amplifier; Figure 7: Showing circuit used for DC AnalysisThe voltage gain of the simulated circuit is the ratio of the maximum output voltage to the maximum input voltage. The voltage gain of the circuit is given by the equation; The following figure shows the settings used on the oscilloscope to obtain an input and output waveform; The maximum output and input signals was read off from the graph above using the Interpolator Line. Using the above equation, the voltage gain of the circuit was determined as follows; The following figure illustrates the bode plot obtained from the simulation; This graph was used to find the gain of the circuit using the following equation; From the above equation, the gain, in decibels is related to the above equation. Using the Interpolator Line, the gain, was determined to be 34.34. Hence the voltage gain was calculated as follows; The above calculation indicates that the design circuit would produce a satisfactory gain of approximately 50. Therefore the graph in figure 10 confirms that the design would produce a voltage gain of approximately 50. Cut-off Frequency The following bode plot was used to determine the lower cut-off frequency; The figure above was used to determine the lower-cut off frequency of the circuit. The lower-cut off frequency is the frequency at which the gain of the circuit decreases by 3 decibels. The Interpolator Line was placed at a gain of 30.861decibels, as this is the gain which corresponds to the lower-cut off frequency. The lower-cut off frequency was determined to be approximately . This lower cut-off frequency is much less than 100Hz and thus it meets the required specification. The following bode plot was used to determine the upper cut-off frequency; The figure above was used to determine the upper -cut off frequency of the circuit. The Interpolator Line was placed at a gain of 30.816 decibels, as this is the gain which corresponds to the upper-cut off frequency. The upper-cut off frequency was determined to be approximately . Lab Results The final test done on the designed circuit was done in the year 1 laboratory. The actual resistances and capacitances of the standard components used were measured using the LCR meter. The following table illustrates the measured resistances; Resistor Standard Resistance/ Measured Resistance/ Tolerance/% Lower Tolerance/ Upper Tolerance/ 6.8 6.7638 5 6.46 7.14 1.5 1.503 5 1.425 1.575 100 99.81 5 95 105 130 129.95 5 123.5 136.5 24 23.529 5 22.8 25.2 100 kÃŽÂ © 99.233 5 95 105 TABLE 6: Measured resistances AND THEIR TOLERANCE RANGE The following table illustrates the measured capacitances; Capacitor Standard Value/ Measured Value/ TABLE 8: Showing Measured capacitances used in the laboratory The BJT Amplifier was then built on the solder less breadboard. The DC LQD-421 dual power supply and the function generator were used to supply the input voltages. The following diagram shows the circuit built; As seen above, the capacitors were connected across their respective resistors and the Feedback FG 601 function generator was connected to the input capacitor. Before measuring the quiescent points of the circuit, tests had to be done to ensure that the required gain of 50 was achieved. This was done by connecting a Tektronix 2205 dual trace oscilloscope to the AC bias circuit. The channel 1 lead was connected to the input signal via the input capacitor and the channel 2 lead was connected across the output signal via the load. The settings on the Feedback FG 601 function generator were set to produce a 1kHz sine wave with an amplitude of . The channels on the Tektronix 2205 dual trace oscilloscope were grounded and the signals centered. The DC LQD-421 dual power supply was turned on and set to 15V and the Feedback FG 601 function generator and the Tektronix 2205 dual trace oscilloscope also turned on. The channels were switched to AC and the input and output sine waves appeared on the screen. To obtain a clear waveform on the screen, the following settings were used on the Tektronix 2205 dual trace oscilloscope; The Volts/Div setting was set at The channel 1 setting was set at The channel 2 setting was set at The two waveforms were then used to determine the voltage gain of the BJT Amplifier. Using the following equation; The upper and lower cut-off frequencies were found for the BJT Amplifier. This was done by varying the frequency on the Feedback FG 601 function generator and plotting a graph of Gain vs Frequency. The range used for the Feedback FG 601 function generator was; 10Hz 100Hz for lower cut-off frequency The following table illustrates the frequency and gain for lower cut-off frequency; Frequency/Hz Input/mV Output/V Gain 10 0.01 5 50 20 0.01 5 50 30 0.01 5 50 40 0.01 5 50 50 0.01 5 50 60 0.01 5 50 70 0.01 4.8 48 80 0.01 4.6 46 90 0.01 4.2 42 100 0.01 2.6 26 Table4: showing frequencies used to get varying gain The lower cut-off gain was calculated from the equation; The original setting on the Feedback FG 601 function generator was set so that the maximum symmetrical swing of the BJT Amplifier could be determined using the Tektronix 2205 dual trace oscilloscope. This was done by increasing the frequency of the Feedback FG 601 function generator until clipping of the output waveform was seen. It was noted that the BJT Amplifier did not have maximum symmetrical swing as the negative peak of the waveform started clipping after the positive peak waveform. Hence, the positive swing and negative swing was calculated as shown in the following; Positive swing; Negative swing; The maximum voltage swing was found to be; The original setting on the Feedback FG 601 function generator was set as the effect of removing the bypass capacitor was explored. The equipment was first turned off for safety purposes and the bypass capacitor removed. The equipments was then turned on and the settings on the Tektronix 2205 dual trace oscilloscope configured to obtain a measurable waveform. The gain was then calculated using equation (>>>>). Hence, it can be stated that the gain of the BJT Amplifier decreased considerably when the bypass capacitor was removed. The maximum symmetrical swing for the amplifier was then tested. This was done as follows; The frequency of the Feedback FG 601 function generator was increased until clipping occurred. It was seen that maximum symmetrical swing was not observed as the negative peak of the waveform started clipping before the positive waveform. Hence the swing was calculated for both the positive waveform and the negative waveform. The calculations are as follows; Positive swing; Negative swing; The maximum voltage swing was found to be; The Tektronix 2205 dual trace oscilloscope was disconnected from the circuit and the Fluke 177 Multi-meter was used to measure the quiescent points of the circuit. The probes were placed across the different points and their readings were recorded. The Fluke 177 Multi-meter was set at when measuring currents and at DC voltage when measuring voltages. The DC voltage setting was used as the AC would not yield measurable readings. To measure the quiescent currents, wires were stripped and attached to the leads of the probes. The circuit had to be broken at the quiescent current point being measured. Then the wire attached to the probe was inserted into the solder less breadboard so that the wire was in series with the component removed. The removed component was placed where it was originally to ensure continuity in the circuit. This was repeated at all quiescent points. The following table illustrates the measured currents; The following table illustrates the measured currents; Current Value/ TABLE 5: AC ANALYSIS OF CIRCUIT The following table illustrates the measured voltages; Voltage Value/ 0.676 TABLE 4: AC ANALYSIS Quiescent Values Currents I / mA Voltages V / V Calculated Simulated Measured Current I / mA Voltage V/V Current I / mA Voltage V/V Current I / mA Voltage V/V 0.65 0.663 0.676 DISCUSSION The BJT Amplifier was built using the common emitter configuration. It was H-type biased to increase the stability in the transistor. Also, as is affected with temperature a change, the H-type biasing configuration ensures that changes in is minimal. Also, the resistors used were made from carbon. This means that the resistors are not required to have high temperature stability. Without a biasing arrangement, the BJT amplifier will not turn on because it will not be in the operating region according to the specifications (Boylestad, Nashelsky, 1987). The differences in values for quiescent points obtained can be explained because the calculated and simulated values were found under ideal conditions. The component values used varied from the standard values